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  • Lipoprotein(a): The Hidden Cardiovascular Risk Factor

    Lipoprotein(a): The Hidden Cardiovascular Risk Factor

    Cardiovascular disease remains the leading cause of death worldwide, and while many are familiar with traditional risk factors like high LDL cholesterol, high blood pressure, and diabetes, there’s a lesser-known but significant player in cardiovascular risk: Lipoprotein(a), or Lp(a). This unique lipoprotein has emerged as an independent risk factor for heart disease, yet remains underrecognized in routine clinical care. In this post, we’ll explore Lp(a)’s discovery, structure, pathophysiology, associated risks, and treatment options.

    The Discovery and History of Lipoprotein(a)

    Lipoprotein(a) was discovered in 1963 by Norwegian geneticist Kåre Berg[7]. In his groundbreaking work, Berg was actually searching for new genetic serum blood types when he immunized rabbits with isolated β-lipoproteins from a single individual who, by chance, had elevated Lp(a)[2]. This serendipitous event led to the generation of immune antisera that reacted positively in about one-third of healthy humans. Berg named this previously unknown factor “Lp(a)” and demonstrated its heritability through family studies[2][6].

    The significance of Berg’s discovery cannot be overstated. As noted in historical accounts: “If he did not have the good fortune that the donor of the β-lipoproteins also had sufficiently elevated Lp(a) to generate an immune response to apo(a), the immunization experiments would have simply generated rabbit antibodies to human LDL-apoB, and the discovery of Lp(a) would likely have occurred much later”[2].

    By 1974, Berg had already linked the presence of Lp(a) to coronary heart disease, though confirmation required improvements in measurement assays[6]. The human gene encoding apolipoprotein(a) was successfully cloned in 1987, providing crucial insights into its structure and relationship to plasminogen[6][7].

    Understanding Lp(a) Structure and Biochemistry

    Lipoprotein(a) has a complex structure that contributes to its unique pathophysiological effects. At its core, Lp(a) resembles LDL cholesterol but with critical differences:

    1. Lp(a) contains an apolipoprotein B-100 (apoB-100) particle, similar to LDL[10]
    2. What makes Lp(a) unique is the addition of apolipoprotein(a) [apo(a)], which is covalently bound to the apoB-100 particle[1][10]
    3. Lp(a) also contains oxidized phospholipids (OxPL), which contribute to its inflammatory properties[10]

    The apo(a) component of Lp(a) evolved through duplication of the plasminogen gene but lacks sequences encoding plasminogen kringles I to III. Instead, it encodes 10 kringle IV subtypes followed by one plasminogen kringle V-like domain and an inactive protease region[6]. This structural similarity to plasminogen, a protein involved in blood clot dissolution, helps explain some of Lp(a)’s thrombotic properties.

    Pathophysiology: How Lp(a) Causes Cardiovascular Damage

    Lipoprotein(a) contributes to cardiovascular disease through multiple mechanisms:

    Atherosclerosis Promotion

    Lp(a) can accumulate in arterial walls, forming plaques similar to LDL cholesterol[1]. These plaques can block blood flow to vital organs such as the heart, brain, kidneys, and lungs, leading to conditions like heart attacks, strokes, and other cardiovascular diseases[1].

    Prothrombotic Effects

    Due to its structural similarity to plasminogen, Lp(a) can interfere with normal clot dissolution, promoting thrombosis. This increases the risk of acute cardiovascular events like heart attacks and strokes[6].

    Inflammation

    Lp(a) contains oxidized phospholipids that promote inflammation in the arterial wall, accelerating atherosclerosis[10][6]. This inflammatory component distinguishes Lp(a) from regular LDL cholesterol and contributes to its pathogenicity.

    Aortic Valve Stenosis

    Beyond atherosclerotic disease, Lp(a) has been strongly linked to calcific aortic valve stenosis, a progressive narrowing of the aortic valve that can lead to heart failure[5][8].

    Genetic Determinants of Lp(a) Levels

    One of the most important aspects of Lp(a) is its strong genetic determination. Approximately 70% to over 90% of the variation in Lp(a) levels between individuals is genetically determined[6]. This makes Lp(a) predominantly a monogenic cardiovascular risk determinant, unlike many other risk factors that are influenced by multiple genes and environmental factors[6].

    The LPA gene, which encodes apolipoprotein(a), is the primary determinant of Lp(a) levels. Variations in this gene, particularly in the number of kringle IV type 2 repeats, significantly influence Lp(a) concentration in the blood[6].

    Cardiovascular Risks Associated with Elevated Lp(a)

    High Lp(a) levels are associated with an increased risk of various cardiovascular conditions:

    Coronary Heart Disease

    Elevated Lp(a) levels of 50 mg/dL (125 nmols/L) or higher significantly increase the risk of heart attacks[1][8]. This risk is independent of other traditional risk factors, including LDL cholesterol.

    Stroke

    Lp(a) has been consistently linked to increased stroke risk, particularly ischemic stroke[8].

    Aortic Valve Stenosis

    High Lp(a) is a causal risk factor for calcific aortic valve stenosis, a condition that can lead to heart failure if untreated[5][8].

    Peripheral Arterial Disease

    While the evidence is less conclusive than for coronary disease, elevated Lp(a) has also been associated with peripheral arterial disease[8].

    Risk Amplification with LDL Cholesterol

    Importantly, the cardiovascular risk associated with high Lp(a) is amplified when LDL cholesterol is also elevated. In the Framingham Heart Study, individuals with both high Lp(a) (≥100 nmol/L) and high LDL-C (≥135 mg/dL) had the highest absolute risk of cardiovascular events, reaching 22.6% over 15 years[3]. Even in individuals with only moderate elevations of LDL-C (135-159 mg/dL), the presence of high Lp(a) identified individuals at high risk, equivalent to those with LDL-C ≥160 mg/dL[3].

    Who Should Be Tested for Lp(a)?

    Given the genetic determination of Lp(a) levels, testing is particularly important for:

    1. Individuals with a family history of premature cardiovascular disease
    2. Patients with cardiovascular disease despite well-controlled traditional risk factors
    3. Those with familial hypercholesterolemia
    4. Patients with calcific aortic valve disease
    5. Individuals with intermediate cardiovascular risk where additional risk stratification would influence treatment decisions

    It’s important to note that Lp(a) testing should be considered regardless of coronary calcium score results. While coronary calcium scoring provides valuable information about existing atherosclerotic burden, it doesn’t capture the thrombotic and inflammatory risks associated with elevated Lp(a). Therefore, a normal calcium score does not exclude the risk conferred by high Lp(a) levels.

    Current Treatment Approaches for Elevated Lp(a)

    Managing elevated Lp(a) presents unique challenges because, unlike LDL cholesterol, Lp(a) levels are minimally affected by lifestyle modifications. Current treatment approaches include:

    Aggressive Management of Other Risk Factors

    Since elevated Lp(a) amplifies the risk associated with other cardiovascular risk factors, aggressive management of LDL cholesterol, blood pressure, diabetes, and smoking is essential[5].

    Statins

    While statins effectively lower LDL cholesterol, they may actually increase Lp(a) levels by 8% to 24%[4]. However, the clinical implications of this increase remain unclear, and the overall cardiovascular benefit of statins likely outweighs any potential harm from modest Lp(a) elevation.

    Niacin

    Niacin can reduce Lp(a) levels by 20% to 30%, but clinical trials have failed to demonstrate significant cardiovascular benefit with niacin therapy[4].

    Lipoprotein Apheresis

    For patients with very high Lp(a) levels and progressive cardiovascular disease despite optimal medical therapy, lipoprotein apheresis is an option. This procedure, similar to dialysis, can reduce Lp(a) levels by approximately 60-70%[4][9]. In a retrospective cohort study, lipoprotein apheresis resulted in a 64% and 63% mean reduction in LDL-C and Lp(a), respectively, and a 94% reduction in major adverse cardiovascular events[4].

    Emerging Therapies for Lp(a) Reduction

    The development of targeted Lp(a)-lowering therapies has generated significant excitement in the cardiovascular community:

    Antisense Oligonucleotides (ASOs)

    ASOs are 16- to 20-nucleic acid-long DNA fragments that are complementary to LPA mRNA. They enter hepatocytes where ribonuclease H1 cleaves the ASO-mRNA complex, resulting in decreased LPA mRNA and consequently decreased Lp(a) production[4].

    Pelacarsen (also known as AKCEA-APO(a)-LRx or TQJ230) is a second-generation ASO currently being tested in a phase 3 clinical trial called Lp(a)HORIZON. In phase 1/2a trials, pelacarsen reduced Lp(a) by 26.2% to 85.3% at 30 days in single-dose groups, and by 66% to 92% in multidose groups[4][9].

    Small-Interfering RNA (siRNA) Therapies

    Similar to ASOs, siRNA therapies target LPA mRNA expression. Through N-acetylgalactosamine conjugation (gal-NAC), these therapies achieve more efficient hepatic uptake, promising increased tolerability and decreased complications[9].

    PCSK9 Inhibitors

    While not specifically designed to lower Lp(a), PCSK9 inhibitors have been shown to reduce Lp(a) levels by approximately 20-30%, though the mechanism and clinical significance of this reduction remain unclear[5].

    The Importance of Family History in Lp(a) Assessment

    Given the strong genetic determination of Lp(a) levels, family history plays a crucial role in risk assessment. Individuals with a family history of premature cardiovascular disease should be considered for Lp(a) testing, even in the absence of traditional risk factors.

    The presence of elevated Lp(a) in a family member should prompt cascade screening of relatives, similar to the approach used for familial hypercholesterolemia. This strategy can identify individuals at high risk before clinical manifestations of cardiovascular disease occur, allowing for early intervention and prevention.

    Clinical Implications and Future Directions

    The clinical management of elevated Lp(a) is evolving rapidly as our understanding of its pathophysiology improves and new therapies emerge. Several key points warrant emphasis:

    1. Lp(a) measurement should be considered once in everyone’s lifetime to identify those at increased genetic risk for cardiovascular disease[5].
    2. For individuals with elevated Lp(a), aggressive management of other modifiable risk factors is essential, with particular attention to LDL cholesterol levels.
    3. The validation of the “Lp(a) hypothesis” – that lowering Lp(a) levels will lead to clinical benefit – is currently being tested in three major clinical outcome trials[2].
    4. Standardization and harmonization of Lp(a) assays remain challenges that need to be addressed to improve risk assessment and treatment decisions[6].

    Conclusion

    Lipoprotein(a) represents an important, genetically determined risk factor for cardiovascular disease that has been underrecognized in clinical practice. As we enter an era of precision medicine, understanding and addressing Lp(a)-associated risk will become increasingly important for comprehensive cardiovascular risk management.

    The development of targeted Lp(a)-lowering therapies offers hope for reducing the residual cardiovascular risk that persists despite optimal management of traditional risk factors. While we await the results of ongoing clinical trials, clinicians should consider Lp(a) testing in appropriate patients and implement aggressive risk factor modification in those with elevated levels.

    By integrating Lp(a) assessment into cardiovascular risk evaluation, particularly in the context of family history, we can improve risk stratification and potentially prevent cardiovascular events in high-risk individuals. The future of Lp(a) management looks promising, with the potential to further reduce the global burden of cardiovascular disease.

    Sources
    [1] Lipoprotein (a) Meaning and How Does it Impact My Heart Health? https://www.heart.org/en/health-topics/cholesterol/genetic-conditions/lipoprotein-a-risks
    [2] Lipoprotein(a) in the Year 2024: A Look Back and a Look Ahead https://www.ahajournals.org/doi/10.1161/ATVBAHA.124.319483
    [3] Risks of Incident Cardiovascular Disease Associated With … https://www.ahajournals.org/doi/10.1161/JAHA.119.014711
    [4] Clinical Trial Design for Lipoprotein(a)-Lowering Therapies https://www.jacc.org/doi/10.1016/j.jacc.2023.02.033
    [5] Lipoprotein(a): Emerging insights and therapeutics – PMC https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11033089/
    [6] Lipoprotein(a): A Genetically Determined, Causal, and Prevalent … https://www.ahajournals.org/doi/10.1161/ATV.0000000000000147
    [7] Lipoprotein(a) – Wikipedia https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lipoprotein(a)
    [8] Lipoprotein(a) as a Risk Factor for Cardiovascular Diseases https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10531345/
    [9] Specialty Corner: Lipoprotein (a) Medications Under Development https://www.lipid.org/lipid-spin/spring-2022/specialty-corner-lipoprotein-medications-under-development
    [10] What is Lipoprotein(a)? – Family Heart Foundation https://familyheart.org/what-is-lpa
    [11] Lipoprotein(a): What it is, test results, and what they mean https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/lipoprotein-a-what-it-is-test-results-and-what-they-mean

  • Amyloidosis: A Hidden Culprit Behind Unusual Symptoms

    Amyloidosis: A Hidden Culprit Behind Unusual Symptoms

    I recently saw a 78-year-old gentleman who came in with an unusual complaint—his tongue had gradually become so enlarged that it was interfering with speech and swallowing. Known as macroglossia, this isn’t a common symptom in most conditions, but it’s one that should immediately raise suspicion for amyloidosis. Laboratory tests were consistent with amyloidosis, as I suspected.

    Amyloidosis is a group of diseases caused by the abnormal buildup of proteins, called amyloids, in various organs. These misfolded proteins disrupt normal function, and because they can deposit almost anywhere in the body, the symptoms can vary widely. The challenge with amyloidosis is that it often masquerades as other, more common conditions, leading to delays in diagnosis.

    Recognizing the Signs: When to Suspect Amyloidosis

    The symptoms of amyloidosis depend on which organs are affected, but certain red flags should prompt further investigation:

    • Macroglossia (enlarged tongue) – Seen in about 10-20% of cases of primary (AL) amyloidosis, it can cause difficulty speaking, swallowing, and even breathing.
    • Nephrotic syndrome – Protein in the urine (proteinuria), swelling in the legs (edema), and declining kidney function can suggest amyloid deposits in the kidneys.
    • Restrictive cardiomyopathy – Heart involvement can lead to heart failure with preserved ejection fraction (HFpEF), arrhythmias, and thickened heart walls seen on echocardiogram.
    • Peripheral neuropathy – Tingling, numbness, and weakness in the hands and feet can indicate amyloid infiltration of nerves.
    • Orthostatic hypotension – A drop in blood pressure upon standing, leading to dizziness or fainting, may suggest autonomic nervous system involvement.
    • Unexplained weight loss and fatigue – Often vague but persistent, these symptoms should prompt consideration of systemic diseases like amyloidosis.

    The Subtypes of Amyloidosis

    Understanding the different types of amyloidosis is critical for proper treatment. The three most common subtypes are:

    • AL (Immunoglobulin Light Chain) Amyloidosis – The most common form, AL amyloidosis is caused by misfolded light chains produced by abnormal plasma cells, similar to multiple myeloma. It can affect multiple organs, including the heart, kidneys, nerves, and liver.
    • ATTR (Transthyretin) Amyloidosis – This form results from misfolded transthyretin proteins, either due to a genetic mutation (hereditary ATTR) or aging (wild-type ATTR). It frequently affects the heart and nerves.
    • AA Amyloidosis – A result of chronic inflammation from conditions like rheumatoid arthritis or infections, AA amyloidosis primarily affects the kidneys, leading to proteinuria and renal failure.

    How Is Amyloidosis Diagnosed?

    Given its protean manifestations, amyloidosis requires a high index of suspicion. The diagnostic process typically includes:

    • Serum and Urine Protein Electrophoresis (SPEP/UPEP) and Free Light Chain Assay – Helps identify AL amyloidosis.
    • Cardiac Imaging – Echocardiography and cardiac MRI can reveal characteristic patterns of amyloid infiltration.
    • Biopsy – Tissue samples from affected organs or fat pad aspirates can confirm the presence of amyloid deposits. Congo red staining under polarized light shows the classic apple-green birefringence.
    • Genetic Testing – Important in distinguishing hereditary ATTR amyloidosis from the wild-type variant.

    Treatment: Targeting the Underlying Cause

    Treatment depends on the type of amyloidosis and the organs involved:

    • AL Amyloidosis – Treated similarly to multiple myeloma, often with chemotherapy (bortezomib, cyclophosphamide, dexamethasone) and, in eligible patients, autologous stem cell transplant.
    • ATTR Amyloidosis – Medications like tafamidis can stabilize transthyretin to prevent further misfolding. Patisiran and inotersen (RNA-targeting therapies) help reduce transthyretin production in hereditary cases.
    • AA Amyloidosis – Requires controlling the underlying inflammatory condition, often with biologics or immunosuppressive therapy.

    Why Early Detection Matters

    Amyloidosis is progressive, and delays in diagnosis can result in irreversible organ damage. Physicians should maintain a high level of suspicion when encountering patients with unexplained heart failure, neuropathy, nephrotic syndrome, or macroglossia. If amyloidosis is suspected, prompt referral to a specialist, typically a hematologist or cardiologist, is essential for confirmation and treatment initiation.

    Final Thoughts

    This 78-year-old gentleman’s case was a classic example of how subtle yet critical findings can lead to a life-altering diagnosis. Amyloidosis, though rare, should always be on the differential when faced with unexplained multi-organ dysfunction. The sooner we recognize and treat it, the better the patient’s chances of maintaining quality of life.

    References:

    1. Falk RH, Alexander KM, Liao R, Dorbala S. “AL (Light-Chain) Cardiac Amyloidosis: A Review of Diagnosis and Therapy.” J Am Coll Cardiol. 2016;68(12):1323-1341.
    2. Maurer MS, Schwartz JH, Gundapaneni B, et al. “Tafamidis Treatment for Patients with Transthyretin Amyloid Cardiomyopathy.” N Engl J Med. 2018;379(11):1007-1016.
    3. Gertz MA, Dispenzieri A, Sher T. “Pathophysiology and Treatment of AL Amyloidosis.” Mayo Clin Proc.2020;95(11):2674-2696.
  • The Dangers of Dogmatic Pseudo-Expertise: Why Credentials Matter and the Perils of Disinformation

    The Dangers of Dogmatic Pseudo-Expertise: Why Credentials Matter and the Perils of Disinformation

    I recently viewed a social media post that was so replete with misinformation, that it made my head spin. It was from an individual (not a physician) who was pontificating about how statin therapy was harmful and had no use in medicine. He did have a background in a field that involves musculoskeletal wellness, but the nature of his expertise was far from the subject about which he dogmatically spoke. This caused me to ponder this issue more broadly. In an age of easy access to information, the spread of medical misinformation has become an increasingly pervasive issue. Many individuals, perhaps with a profession tangential to management of medical illness, or just individuals “who have done their own research” may hold strong convictions about the efficacy of certain treatments—like the rejection of statins, despite overwhelming evidence supporting their benefit in reducing cardiovascular risk. These individuals often speak with an air of certainty, presenting themselves as experts on topics far outside their specific scope of training.

    This phenomenon, where individuals without formal expertise promote their personal beliefs as if they are irrefutable truths, is not only a source of frustration for those with legitimate knowledge, but also dangerous for the public. It can foster confusion, harm, and mislead those seeking reliable, evidence-based healthcare advice. In this post, we will explore the psychological underpinnings of this dogmatic mindset, examine the role of disinformation, and underscore why credentials and experience matter when it comes to health and wellness.

    The Psychology of Dogmatism

    Psychologists have long been interested in the nature of dogmatism—an unwavering belief in one’s views, despite contrary evidence. According to Rokeach (1960), dogmatic individuals are highly resistant to change in their beliefs, which they consider absolute and unquestionable. The phenomenon is linked to a need for cognitive closure, a psychological desire for certainty and decisiveness in thinking. This is especially pronounced in domains like health and wellness, where individuals may seek to simplify complex medical topics to fit their own worldview.

    A study by Clarke et al. (2014) found that dogmatic people often reject conflicting evidence because it creates discomfort. In this context, when an allied health professional specializing in musculoskeletal health, for instance, dismisses statins despite extensive evidence showing their life-saving benefits, it is often because acknowledging the complexity of medical science would challenge their own entrenched beliefs. Instead, they lean into simplifications, becoming more vocal in their certainty, regardless of their expertise or understanding of the broader body of evidence.

    Disinformation: Intentions and Nefarious Influences

    While some individuals may honestly believe they are helping others by promoting their views, others are more motivated by personal interests—be they financial, ideological, or political, or just to receive more “likes” on social media. The spread of health disinformation is often driven by a mix of unqualified individuals selling products or services, or by individuals with ideological agendas that reject mainstream medical consensus.

    According to Lewandowsky, Ecker, and Cook (2017), disinformation is most effective when it plays on emotional triggers and confirmation bias. In the case of statins, for example, the narrative that “big pharma is pushing dangerous drugs” can be very alluring to people who are already skeptical of the medical establishment. For someone with no expertise in cardiology, this narrative is easy to latch onto, and the allure of challenging perceived authority figures makes their message more appealing.

    When such figures speak dogmatically, they manipulate others into trusting them over professionals, leading to potentially harmful consequences, such as people foregoing statins or other evidence-based treatments. This is especially pernicious when the individuals promoting disinformation are well-spoken and confident, leveraging their charisma to sway public opinion.

    The Nuance of Expert Knowledge

    Experts in any field, particularly in healthcare, understand that knowledge is complex and evolving. Medical professionals, from doctors to dietitians, engage with continuous learning and critical thinking, taking into account the nuances of individual health and the broader context of scientific discovery. Statins, for instance, are not a one-size-fits-all solution. For some patients, alternative approaches may be appropriate, and for others, statins may be life-saving. A nuanced approach considers the individual’s overall health, history, and needs—rather than offering blanket statements.

    In contrast, the non-expert who speaks dogmatically often ignores these complexities. Their message is reduced to simple slogans: “Statins are bad!” or “You don’t need them, try this herb!” This oversimplification does not only lack scientific merit—it actively harms the conversation by offering false certainty in an area where uncertainty is the norm.

    A study by Gervais et al. (2017) highlights the importance of expertise in framing health messages. They found that lay individuals were far more likely to overestimate the certainty of their opinions, while experts were more likely to present information in a way that acknowledged uncertainty and context. The more nuanced and evidence-based approach is often less palatable in the age of soundbites, but it is ultimately more beneficial to public health.

    Why Credentials and Experience Matter

    Someone, for example, may be highly trained in the manipulation of the spine to address musculoskeletal issues. However, they are not trained to diagnose or treat systemic conditions like high cholesterol, heart disease, or diabetes. These are areas that require extensive education in physiology, pharmacology, and clinical care—subjects that go far beyond the scope of their training.

    Credentials matter because they signify a level of education and expertise that equips individuals to make informed, evidence-based decisions. The role of a licensed physician, trained in internal medicine, family medicine, endocrinology or cardiology, involves years of education and practical experience in understanding complex biological systems, interpreting research, and providing care based on the best available evidence. However well-intentioned, often the pontificators in social media do not have the same training or understanding to offer medical advice on matters like statin therapy.

    This difference in training explains why it’s essential to turn to professionals with the appropriate credentials when seeking advice about complex medical issues. It is important to understand that while an individual can help with musculoskeletal issues, they should not be presenting themselves as authorities on drugs that affect the cardiovascular system or other areas outside their expertise.

    Conclusion

    In conclusion, while it is tempting to trust confident voices that offer simplified solutions to complex health problems, it is essential to remember that dogmatism is not a substitute for expertise. The psychological appeal of certainty can easily overshadow the need for nuance and evidence-based care. Disinformation can be damaging when it undermines the credibility of legitimate experts, and individuals who speak authoritatively on topics they don’t fully understand should be approached with caution.

    When it comes to health, knowledge and credentials matter. Medical professionals, who have the proper education and experience, are trained to navigate the complexities of human physiology and evidence-based medicine. It is crucial to rely on their expertise rather than the dogmatic declarations of individuals without the necessary qualifications. This is especially important in a rapidly changing political world which seems to have fostered a disdain for expertise. Always prioritize evidence over opinion, and remember that complexity and uncertainty are hallmarks of genuine medical knowledge.

    References

    • Clarke, C. E., et al. (2014). The relationship between cognitive closure and dogmatism. Journal of Research in Personality.

    • Gervais, S. J., et al. (2017). The role of expertise in health messaging: A meta-analysis. Journal of Health Communication.

    • Lewandowsky, S., Ecker, U. K. H., & Cook, J. (2017). Beyond Misinformation: Understanding and Coping with the Spread of False Beliefs. Psychological Science in the Public Interest.

    • Rokeach, M. (1960). The Open and Closed Mind: Investigations into the Character of Human Belief. Basic Books.

  • The Great Multivitamin Debate: What Does Science Really Tell Us?

    The Current Landscape

    Over one-third of American adults start their day by popping a multivitamin, hoping to boost their health and longevity[1]. This widespread practice has created a booming dietary supplement industry worth billions of dollars. But recent evidence suggests we may need to rethink this morning ritual.

    What the Latest Research Reveals

    A groundbreaking 2024 study from the National Institutes of Health, analyzing data from over 390,000 healthy adults tracked for more than two decades, delivered some sobering news: daily multivitamin use showed no association with reduced mortality[4]. Even more surprisingly, multivitamin users had a 4% higher risk of all-cause mortality compared to non-users[5].

    The Cognitive Connection

    However, it’s not all discouraging news. Recent cognitive research from the COSMOS trial revealed that daily multivitamin supplementation might slow cognitive aging by approximately two years compared to placebo[9]. The study demonstrated improvements in both global cognition and episodic memory, offering a glimmer of hope for those concerned about age-related cognitive decline.

    Who Really Needs Supplements?

    The evidence suggests that specific populations may benefit from multivitamin supplementation:

    • Older adults facing absorption challenges or reduced appetite
    • Individuals following strict plant-based diets
    • People with documented nutritional deficiencies
    • Parents of selective eaters[18]

    The Food-First Philosophy

    The human body is designed to extract nutrients from whole foods, not synthetic supplements. A well-balanced diet rich in fruits, vegetables, lean proteins, and whole grains provides not just vitamins and minerals, but also beneficial compounds that work synergistically in ways that supplements cannot replicate[6].

    Understanding the Numbers

    When examining nutrient adequacy, research shows that approximately 74-76% of men and 72-75% of women already obtain adequate intake of 17 essential nutrients from food alone[3]. While multivitamin use increased these percentages to around 84%, it also led to concerning levels of excess intake for certain nutrients – particularly niacin, vitamin A, iron, and zinc[3].

    The Bottom Line

    For healthy adults consuming a balanced diet, multivitamins appear to be an unnecessary expense[13]. The focus should remain on obtaining nutrients through whole foods rather than supplements[1]. However, this doesn’t mean multivitamins are harmful – they’re generally safe when taken as directed, but they shouldn’t be viewed as insurance against poor dietary choices or as a pathway to longevity[6].

    Looking Forward

    As we continue to unravel the complex relationship between supplementation and health outcomes, one thing remains clear: there’s no substitute for a nutrient-rich, balanced diet. While the supplement industry continues to grow, the evidence increasingly points to the supremacy of whole foods in supporting long-term health and wellness[6].

    Remember, before starting any supplement regimen, consult with a healthcare provider who can assess your individual needs and potential deficiencies. The path to optimal health lies not in a pill, but in the cumulative effects of sound nutritional choices and healthy lifestyle habits.

    Sources
    [1] Daily Multivitamin Use In Healthy Adults Doesn’t Decrease Risk Of … https://www.forbes.com/sites/ariannajohnson/2024/06/26/daily-multivitamin-use-in-healthy-adults-doesnt-decrease-risk-of-death-study-suggests-what-to-know-about-pros-and-cons-of-multivitamins/
    [2] Weighing up the evidence for multivitamins – Nature https://www.nature.com/articles/d42473-023-00165-x
    [3] Multivitamin/mineral Supplements – Health Professional Fact Sheet https://ods.od.nih.gov/factsheets/MVMS-HealthProfessional/
    [4] For healthy adults, taking multivitamins daily is not associated with a … https://www.nih.gov/news-events/news-releases/healthy-adults-taking-multivitamins-daily-not-associated-lower-risk-death
    [5] The Limited Value of Multivitamin Supplements | JAMA Network Open https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamanetworkopen/fullarticle/2820375
    [6] Is There Really Any Benefit to Multivitamins? https://www.hopkinsmedicine.org/health/wellness-and-prevention/is-there-really-any-benefit-to-multivitamins
    [7] Do multivitamins make you healthier? – Harvard Health https://www.health.harvard.edu/mens-health/do-multivitamins-make-you-healthier
    [8] Daily multivitamins may not promote longevity, study finds https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/multivitamins-may-not-help-you-live-longer
    [9] Third Major Study Finds Evidence that Daily Multivitamin … https://www.massgeneralbrigham.org/en/about/newsroom/press-releases/multivitamins-improve-memory-and-slow-cognitive-aging
    [10] Should I Take a Daily Multivitamin? – The Nutrition Source https://nutritionsource.hsph.harvard.edu/multivitamin/
    [11] Multivitamin Use and Mortality Risk in 3 Prospective US Cohorts https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamanetworkopen/fullarticle/2820369
    [12] Is There Really Any Benefit to Multivitamins? https://www.hopkinsmedicine.org/health/wellness-and-prevention/is-there-really-any-benefit-to-multivitamins
    [13] The Medical Minute: Vitamin supplements versus a balanced diet … https://pennstatehealthnews.org/2024/03/the-medical-minute-vitamin-supplements-versus-a-balanced-diet-no-contest/
    [14] Why are you taking a multivitamin? – Harvard Health https://www.health.harvard.edu/blog/why-are-you-taking-a-multivitamin-202207262787
    [15] Do Multivitamins Actually Help? – Kettering Health https://ketteringhealth.org/do-multivitamins-actually-help/
    [16] Vitamin and mineral supplements – what to know https://www.betterhealth.vic.gov.au/health/healthyliving/vitamin-and-mineral-supplements-what-to-know
    [17] Study: Daily Multivitamins Don’t Really Help You Live Longer https://www.prevention.com/health/a61584366/multivitamins-may-not-help-you-live-longer-study/
    [18] Multivitamins: Hype or health essentials? – MedicalNewsToday https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/are-supplements-really-the-superheroes-of-self-care
    [19] Do multivitamins make you healthier? – Harvard Health https://www.health.harvard.edu/mens-health/do-multivitamins-make-you-healthier
    [20] The Limited Value of Multivitamin Supplements | JAMA Network Open https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamanetworkopen/fullarticle/2820375
    [21] The Evolving Role of Multivitamin/Multimineral Supplement Use … https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5852824/

  • A New Era in Pain Management: Understanding Suzetrigine

    A New Era in Pain Management: Understanding Suzetrigine

    The FDA’s approval of suzetrigine (Journavx) on January 30, 2025, marks a watershed moment in pain medicine – the first new class of pain medication in over two decades[1]. This breakthrough couldn’t come at a more critical time, as our nation grapples with an opioid epidemic that has claimed countless lives while leaving millions suffering from undertreated pain.

    The Opioid Crisis and the Need for Innovation

    The story of pain management in America is complex. Over a 15-year period from 1999 to 2014, opioid prescriptions nearly doubled from 105 million to 207 million, with fatal overdoses increasing five-fold[5]. This crisis created a challenging paradox: how do we effectively treat pain while avoiding the risks of addiction? More than 50 million American adults live with chronic pain, half experiencing severe pain daily[51]. The stigma surrounding opioid use has created additional barriers, with many patients facing discrimination in healthcare settings and reluctance from providers to prescribe needed medications[6].

    The Science Behind Suzetrigine

    Suzetrigine represents a completely novel approach to pain management. Unlike opioids, which work in the brain to dull pain perception, suzetrigine targets a specific protein called NaV1.8, found only in pain-sensing nerve cells in the peripheral nervous system[7]. This sodium channel plays a crucial role in transmitting pain signals from injured tissue to the brain. By selectively blocking NaV1.8, suzetrigine prevents pain signals from being generated in the first place[3].

    The drug’s development was inspired by an fascinating discovery – researchers studied a family of fire walkers in Pakistan who could walk on hot coals without pain due to a genetic variation affecting their pain-sensing nerves[3]. It took scientists 25 years to translate this finding into a therapeutic approach.

    Clinical Evidence and Effectiveness

    In large clinical trials involving over 2,000 patients, suzetrigine demonstrated significant pain relief following surgeries like abdominoplasty and bunionectomy[1]. The drug works relatively quickly – patients experienced meaningful pain reduction within 119-240 minutes, compared to 480 minutes with placebo[55]. On a standard 0-10 pain scale, suzetrigine typically reduced pain scores by about 3.5 points[3].

    Safety Profile and Practical Considerations

    The medication is taken orally, with a loading dose of 100mg followed by 50mg every 12 hours[3]. Common side effects are generally mild, including headache, constipation, itching, muscle spasms, and occasional rash[54]. Importantly, suzetrigine shows no evidence of addiction potential or dependence[7].

    One key limitation: the drug shouldn’t be taken with strong CYP3A inhibitors or grapefruit products[2]. A week’s course of treatment costs approximately $232.50, though insurance coverage is expected to expand given its inclusion under the NOPAIN Act[1].

    Future Potential

    While currently approved only for acute pain, ongoing research is exploring suzetrigine’s potential in chronic pain conditions[57]. Early studies in sciatica have shown mixed results, but researchers remain optimistic about its potential broader applications[57]. The drug’s unique mechanism of action suggests it could be effective for both musculoskeletal and neuropathic pain conditions.

    Changing the Pain Management Paradigm

    Suzetrigine represents more than just a new medication – it signals a shift toward more targeted, safer approaches to pain management. For healthcare providers long caught between the imperative to treat pain and the risks of opioid prescribing, it offers a valuable new tool. For patients, it provides hope for effective pain relief without the stigma and risks associated with opioids.

    The approval of suzetrigine reminds us that scientific innovation can help address even our most challenging healthcare crises. As we continue to battle the opioid epidemic while working to better serve patients in pain, this new class of medication may help chart a path forward.

    Sources
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    [2] [PDF] JOURNAVX (suzetrigine) tablets, for oral use – accessdata.fda.gov https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/drugsatfda_docs/label/2025/219209s000lbl.pdf
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    [5] Opioid epidemic: How are we teaching future doctors to treat pain? https://health.ucdavis.edu/news/headlines/opioid-epidemic-how-are-we-teaching-future-doctors-to-treat-pain/2024/04
    [6] The Impact of Stigma on People with Opioid Use Disorder, Opioid … https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8800858/
    [7] Pharmacology and Mechanism of Action of Suzetrigine, a Potent … https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39775738/
    [8] Can this new drug promise pain relief without peril? https://news.northwestern.edu/stories/2025/01/can-this-new-drug-promise-pain-relief-without-peril/
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    [10] Pain Management Alternatives to Opioids https://www.mhs.net/patients-and-visitors/pain-management
    [11] [PDF] JOURNAVX (suzetrigine) tablets, for oral use – Vertex Pharmaceuticals https://pi.vrtx.com/files/uspi_suzetrigine.pdf
    [12] Suzetrigine – Wikipedia https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suzetrigine
    [13] Non-Opioid Treatment for Chronic Pain | Made for This Moment https://madeforthismoment.asahq.org/pain-management/non-opioid-treatment/
    [14] Vertex to Present Phase 3 Data Highlighting Suzetrigine’s Potential … https://news.vrtx.com/news-releases/news-release-details/vertex-present-phase-3-data-highlighting-suzetrigines-potential
    [15] Nonopioid Pharmacologic Treatments for Chronic Pain https://effectivehealthcare.ahrq.gov/products/nonopioid-chronic-pain/protocol
    [16] Vertex Announces FDA Approval of JOURNAVX™ (suzetrigine), a … https://news.vrtx.com/news-releases/news-release-details/vertex-announces-fda-approval-journavxtm-suzetrigine-first-class
    [17] US drug agency approves potent painkiller — the first non-opioid in … https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-025-00274-1
    [18] FDA Approves Novel Non-Opioid Treatment for Moderate to Severe … https://www.fda.gov/news-events/press-announcements/fda-approves-novel-non-opioid-treatment-moderate-severe-acute-pain
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    [20] Suzetrigine: Uses, Interactions, Mechanism of Action – DrugBank https://go.drugbank.com/drugs/DB18927
    [21] Vertex Announces FDA Approval of JOURNAVX™ (suzetrigine), a … https://investors.vrtx.com/news-releases/news-release-details/vertex-announces-fda-approval-journavxtm-suzetrigine-first-class
    [22] FDA Greenlights Review of Vertex’s Suzetrigine for Severe Acute Pain https://havenhealthmgmt.org/fda-greenlights-review-of-vertexs-suzetrigine-for-severe-acute-pain/
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    [25] Alternatives to Opioids for Managing Pain – StatPearls – NCBI https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK574543/
    [26] [PDF] alternatives to opioids – Florida Department of Health https://www.floridahealth.gov/programs-and-services/non-opioid-pain-management/_documents/alternatives-facts-11×17-eng.pdf
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    [28] New Non-Opioid Compound Provides Innovative Pain Relief https://dental.nyu.edu/aboutus/news/articles/397.html
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    [32] End the Stigma campaign – State of Michigan https://www.michigan.gov/opioids/find-help/stigma/stigma-info/campaign
    [33] Opioid Use Disorder – Psychiatry.org https://www.psychiatry.org/patients-families/opioid-use-disorder
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    [35] Addressing the Opioid Crisis | ACL Administration for Community … https://acl.gov/programs/addressing-opioid-crisis
    [36] Stigma Reduction | Stop Overdose – CDC https://www.cdc.gov/stop-overdose/stigma-reduction/index.html
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    [39] Vertex Announces Results From Phase 2 Study of Suzetrigine for … https://investors.vrtx.com/news-releases/news-release-details/vertex-announces-results-phase-2-study-suzetrigine-treatment
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    [42] Suzetrigine: First-in-Class Nonopioid Pain Therapy Is Approved by … https://www.ajmc.com/view/suzetrigine-the-first-non-opiate-pain-therapy-is-fda-approved
    [43] [PDF] Suzetrigine for Acute Pain:Effectiveness and Value – ICER https://icer.org/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/ICER_Acute-Pain_Evidence-Report_For-Publication_020525.pdf
    [44] Suzetrigine (Journavx), an Opioid Alternative for Pain – GoodRx https://www.goodrx.com/conditions/pain/opioid-alternatives
    [45] FDA Approves New Non-Opioid Pain Treatment – WebMD https://www.webmd.com/pain-management/news/20250131/fda-approves-new-non-opioid-pain-treatment
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    [47] What to Know About Journavx, the Non-Opioid Pain Medication Just … https://www.usnews.com/news/health-news/articles/2025-01-31/what-to-know-about-journavx-the-non-opioid-pain-medication-just-approved-by-the-fda
    [48] Journavx (suzetrigine) dosing, indications, interactions … – Medscape https://reference.medscape.com/drug/journavx-suzetrigine-4000474
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    [55] Suzetrigine’s Pending Approval Signals a Shift in Non-Opioid Pain … https://www.medcentral.com/pain/suzetrigine-pending-approval-signals-a-shift-in-non-opioid-pain-management
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  • The Revolution of Targeted Therapy in Cancer Treatment: A Decade of Promise

    Cancer has long been one of the most formidable challenges in medicine, affecting millions of lives worldwide. However, the landscape of cancer treatment is undergoing a profound transformation, with targeted therapy emerging as a beacon of hope for patients and clinicians alike. As we stand on the cusp of a new era in oncology, it’s crucial to understand the concept of targeted therapy and its potential to revolutionise cancer treatment in the coming decade.

    Understanding Targeted Therapy

    Targeted therapy represents a paradigm shift in cancer treatment. Unlike traditional chemotherapy, which affects all rapidly dividing cells, targeted therapy is designed to interfere with specific molecular targets that are associated with cancer[1]. These targets are typically proteins that control how cancer cells grow, divide, and spread throughout the body.

    To appreciate the significance of this approach, it’s essential to understand that cancer is not a single disease, but rather a complex group of diseases characterised by uncontrolled cell growth. Each cancer type—and indeed, each individual tumor—may have unique genetic and molecular features that drive its growth and survival. Targeted therapies are developed to exploit these specific features, offering a more personalised approach to treatment.

    The Mechanism of Action

    Targeted therapies work in various ways, but all aim to disrupt the processes that cancer cells rely on to survive and proliferate. Some common mechanisms include:

    1. Blocking growth signals: Many targeted drugs interfere with proteins that signal cancer cells to grow and divide[2].
    2. Cutting off blood supply: Some therapies target the formation of new blood vessels that feed tumors, a process known as angiogenesis[2].
    3. Delivering cell-killing substances: Certain targeted therapies act as vehicles to deliver toxic substances directly to cancer cells[2].
    4. Triggering the immune system: Some targeted therapies help the body’s immune system recognise and destroy cancer cells more effectively[2].

    To illustrate this, let’s consider the example of trastuzumab (Herceptin), a monoclonal antibody used in the treatment of HER2-positive breast cancer. HER2 is a protein that promotes cell growth and is found in excessive amounts in about 20% of breast cancers. Trastuzumab binds to HER2 receptors on cancer cells, blocking growth signals and flagging these cells for destruction by the immune system[1].

    The Current Landscape

    As of 2025, targeted therapies have already made significant inroads in cancer treatment. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has approved numerous targeted therapies for various cancer types, including lung, colorectal, breast, and prostate cancers[3]. These treatments have shown remarkable efficacy in specific patient populations, often with fewer side effects compared to traditional chemotherapy.

    For instance, in lung cancer, drugs targeting mutations in the EGFR gene or ALK gene rearrangements have dramatically improved outcomes for patients with these specific genetic alterations. The FLAURA trial demonstrated that osimertinib, an EGFR inhibitor, improved progression-free survival in patients with EGFR-mutated non-small cell lung cancer to 18.9 months, compared to 10.2 months with older EGFR inhibitors[4].

    The Promise of the Next Decade

    As we look towards the future, several trends suggest that targeted therapy will play an increasingly central role in cancer treatment:

    1. Expansion of biomarker-driven therapies: Advances in genomic sequencing and molecular diagnostics are enabling the identification of more targetable mutations across various cancer types. This will likely lead to the development of new targeted therapies and the expansion of existing ones to new indications[5].
    2. Combination approaches: Researchers are exploring combinations of targeted therapies to overcome resistance mechanisms and improve efficacy. For example, combining BRAF and MEK inhibitors has shown superior results in melanoma treatment compared to single-agent therapy[6].
    3. Antibody-drug conjugates (ADCs): These “smart bombs” combine the targeting precision of monoclonal antibodies with potent cytotoxic agents. The field of ADCs is rapidly evolving, with over 100 ADCs in clinical trials as of 2025[7].
    4. Precision medicine: The integration of genomic profiling, artificial intelligence, and targeted therapies is paving the way for truly personalised cancer treatment. This approach aims to match patients with the most effective targeted therapies based on their tumour’s molecular profile[8].
    5. Liquid biopsies: The development of blood-based tests to detect circulating tumour DNA (ctDNA) is expected to revolutionise how we monitor treatment response and detect early signs of resistance to targeted therapies[9].

    Challenges and Considerations

    While the potential of targeted therapy is immense, it’s important to acknowledge the challenges that lie ahead:

    1. Resistance: Cancer cells can develop resistance to targeted therapies over time, necessitating ongoing research into resistance mechanisms and strategies to overcome them[10].
    2. Toxicity: Although generally better tolerated than chemotherapy, targeted therapies can still cause significant side effects, some of which may be unique to these agents[11].
    3. Cost: Many targeted therapies are expensive, raising concerns about accessibility and healthcare costs[12].
    4. Patient selection: Identifying the right patients for each targeted therapy remains crucial. Not all patients with a particular cancer type will benefit from a specific targeted therapy[13].

    The Impact on Clinical Practice

    For medical professionals, the rise of targeted therapies necessitates a shift in approach to cancer diagnosis and treatment. Molecular testing is becoming an integral part of cancer diagnosis, guiding treatment decisions and patient management. Clinicians must stay abreast of rapidly evolving treatment landscapes and interpret complex genomic data to make informed decisions.

    Moreover, the management of side effects associated with targeted therapies requires specific knowledge and expertise. While these side effects are often different from those seen with traditional chemotherapy, they can be significant and require prompt recognition and management[14].

    Conclusion

    The advent of targeted therapy marks a new chapter in the fight against cancer. By harnessing our growing understanding of cancer biology, these treatments offer the promise of more effective, less toxic therapies tailored to individual patients. As we enter this new decade, the continued development and refinement of targeted therapies, coupled with advances in diagnostics and precision medicine, hold the potential to dramatically improve outcomes for cancer patients.

    However, realising this potential will require ongoing research, collaboration across disciplines, and a commitment to addressing the challenges of resistance, toxicity, and accessibility. As medical professionals, our role is to embrace these advances, continually educate ourselves, and work towards integrating these promising therapies into our practice to provide the best possible care for our patients.

    The journey ahead is both exciting and challenging, but it offers hope for a future where cancer treatment is more precise, effective, and tailored to each individual patient.

    References:

    [1] Targeted therapy is a type of cancer treatment that targets proteins that control how cancer cells grow, divide, and spread[12].

    [2] Targeted therapies can block or turn off chemical signals that tell the cancer cell to grow and divide, change proteins within the cancer cells so the cells die, stop making new blood vessels to feed the cancer cells, trigger the immune system to kill the cancer cells, or carry toxins to the cancer cells to kill them, but not normal cells[28].

    [3] The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has approved numerous targeted therapies for various cancer types, including lung, colorectal, breast, and prostate cancers[34].

    [4] The FLAURA trial demonstrated that osimertinib, an EGFR inhibitor, improved progression-free survival in patients with EGFR-mutated non-small cell lung cancer to 18.9 months, compared to 10.2 months with older EGFR inhibitors[34].

    [5] Advances in genomic sequencing and molecular diagnostics are enabling the identification of more targetable mutations across various cancer types[36].

    [6] Combining BRAF and MEK inhibitors has shown superior results in melanoma treatment compared to single-agent therapy[34].

    [7] As of 2025, there are over 100 new ADCs in clinical trials[27].

    [8] The integration of genomic profiling, artificial intelligence, and targeted therapies is paving the way for truly personalised cancer treatment[4].

    [9] The development of blood-based tests to detect circulating tumour DNA (ctDNA) is expected to revolutionise how we monitor treatment response and detect early signs of resistance to targeted therapies[4].

    [10] Cancer cells can develop resistance to targeted therapies over time, necessitating ongoing research into resistance mechanisms and strategies to overcome them[23].

    [11] Although generally better tolerated than chemotherapy, targeted therapies can still cause significant side effects, some of which may be unique to these agents[12].

    [12] Many targeted therapies are expensive, raising concerns about accessibility and healthcare costs[36].

    [13] Not all patients with a particular cancer type will benefit from a specific targeted therapy[26].

    [14] The management of side effects associated with targeted therapies requires specific knowledge and expertise[1].

    Sources
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    [8] An overview of targeted cancer therapy – PMC https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4662664/
    [9] What is Targeted Therapy? | Cancer Treatment https://www.cancercouncil.com.au/cancer-information/cancer-treatment/targeted-therapy/what-is-targeted-therapy/
    [10] Targeted Therapy for Cancer | OHSU https://www.ohsu.edu/knight-cancer-institute/targeted-therapy-cancer
    [11] The year in cancer: Advances made in 2024, predictions for 2025 https://www.foxnews.com/health/year-cancer-advances-made-2024-predictions-2025
    [12] Targeted Therapy for Cancer – NCI https://www.cancer.gov/about-cancer/treatment/types/targeted-therapies
    [13] Types of Cancer Treatments: Targeted Therapy & Precision Oncology https://www.mskcc.org/cancer-care/diagnosis-treatment/cancer-treatments/targeted-therapy
    [14] Targeted Therapy: Types, Benefits & What to Expect | Mercy https://www.mercy.net/service/targeted-therapy/
    [15] Targeted Cancer Therapies – AAFP https://www.aafp.org/pubs/afp/issues/2021/0201/p155.html
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    [23] Potential Successes and Challenges of Targeted Cancer Therapies https://academic.oup.com/jncimono/article/2019/53/lgz008/5551349?login=false
    [24] Advancements in Targeted Therapies Revolutionize Ovarian Cancer … https://www.targetedonc.com/view/advancements-in-targeted-therapies-revolutionize-ovarian-cancer-treatment
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    [28] How Targeted Therapies Are Used to Treat Cancer https://www.cancer.org/cancer/managing-cancer/treatment-types/targeted-therapy/what-is.html
    [29] AACR Annual Meeting 2023: The Past, Present, and Future of … https://www.aacr.org/blog/2023/04/28/annual-meeting-2023-the-past-present-and-future-of-targeted-therapies-for-pediatric-cancer/
    [30] Molecular targeted therapy for anticancer treatment – Nature https://www.nature.com/articles/s12276-022-00864-3
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    [32] Targeted therapies for cancer – UF Health https://ufhealth.org/care-sheets/targeted-therapies-for-cancer
    [33] Targeted Therapy – Abramson Cancer Center | Penn Medicine https://www.pennmedicine.org/cancer/navigating-cancer-care/treatment-types/immunotherapy/targeted-therapy
    [34] Targeted Therapy for Cancers: From Ongoing Clinical Trials to FDA … https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10487969/
    [35] Advances in Cancer Treatment Can Mean Longer and Better Lives … https://www.medstarhealth.org/blog/cancer-treatment-advances
    [36] Six Game-Changing Cancer Treatments Built for Unstoppable … https://www.geneonline.com/six-game-changing-cancer-treatments-built-for-unstoppable-growth-in-2025-part-ii/
    [37] References | Successes and Limitations of Targeted Cancer Therapy https://karger.com/books/book/193/chapter-abstract/6019789/References?redirectedFrom=fulltext
    [38] Targeted cancer therapies – PMC https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4012258/

  • The Science of Hydration: Debunking Myths and Establishing Evidence-Based Guidelines

    The longstanding recommendation to drink eight 8-ounce glasses of water daily has become deeply embedded in popular health consciousness. However, this widely accepted guideline deserves careful scientific scrutiny.

    Historical Origins of the 8×8 Rule

    The famous “8×8” rule (eight 8-ounce glasses daily) appears to have originated from a 1945 Food and Nutrition Board recommendation suggesting 2.5 liters of daily water intake[4]. Crucially, the original recommendation included an often-overlooked statement that “most of this quantity is contained in prepared foods”[4]. This qualification was lost over time, leading to the widespread misinterpretation that we need to drink 8 glasses of plain water daily[9].

    Understanding Daily Water Requirements

    Insensible Losses

    The body loses water through multiple pathways, including:

    • Respiratory losses: approximately 20% of daily water loss
    • Transcutaneous (skin) losses: about 30%
    • Urinary losses: roughly 50%[14]

    These losses, particularly respiratory and transcutaneous, are termed “insensible” because they occur continuously without our awareness[2].

    Evidence-Based Daily Requirements

    Current scientific evidence indicates that daily fluid needs vary significantly between individuals based on multiple factors[7]. The National Academy of Medicine suggests approximately:

    • 15 cups (3.7 liters) for men
    • 11 cups (2.7 liters) for women[6]

    However, these quantities include water from all sources, including food, which typically provides about 20% of daily fluid intake[6].

    Impact of Medications and Medical Conditions

    Diuretic Effects

    Certain medications and substances affect hydration status:

    Medications:

    • Diuretics significantly increase fluid requirements
    • Corticosteroids can alter fluid balance
    • Some antipsychotic medications may increase thirst[5]

    Beverages:

    • Moderate caffeine intake does not cause significant dehydration
    • Low-alcohol beverages (like beer) in moderation don’t compromise hydration
    • High caffeine or alcohol intake can lead to increased fluid loss[5]

    Dangers of Dehydration

    Even mild dehydration (1-2% body water loss) can impact cognitive function and physical performance[15]. Signs of dehydration include:

    • Fatigue
    • Headaches
    • Decreased physical performance
    • Mood disturbances[3]

    Hazards of Overhydration

    Water intoxication (hyponatremia) represents a serious medical condition when excessive water intake dilutes blood sodium levels. Symptoms include:

    Early Signs:

    • Headache
    • Nausea
    • Confusion[8]

    Severe Manifestations:

    • Seizures
    • Brain swelling
    • Potential death[19]

    Athletes engaging in endurance events are particularly at risk for overhydration[18]. The kidneys can process approximately one liter of fluid per hour, and exceeding this capacity can lead to dangerous consequences[6].

    Evidence-Based Recommendations

    General Guidelines

    1. Let thirst be your guide for fluid intake[18]
    2. Monitor urine color (light yellow indicates good hydration)[6]
    3. Adjust intake based on:
    • Activity level
    • Climate
    • Health conditions
    • Medications

    Special Considerations

    Athletes:

    • Drink according to thirst rather than predetermined schedules
    • Replace electrolytes during prolonged exercise[18]

    Elderly:

    • May have decreased thirst sensation
    • Should maintain regular fluid intake even without feeling thirsty[6]

    Role of Other Beverages

    Contrary to popular belief, caffeinated beverages and moderate alcohol consumption can contribute to daily fluid intake[7]. Research shows:

    • Moderate caffeine consumption doesn’t cause significant dehydration
    • Only high caffeine intake leads to increased fluid loss
    • Low-alcohol beverages can contribute to hydration when consumed in moderation[5]

    Practical Implementation

    Rather than adhering to rigid guidelines, focus on:

    • Drinking when thirsty
    • Maintaining light-colored urine
    • Increasing intake during exercise or hot weather
    • Consulting healthcare providers about individual needs, especially when taking medications that affect fluid balance

    Conclusion

    The evidence does not support the universal 8×8 rule. Instead, fluid needs vary significantly between individuals based on multiple factors including activity level, climate, and health status. While dehydration poses real health risks, overhydration can be equally dangerous. The body’s thirst mechanism, when functioning properly, provides a reliable guide for most healthy individuals to maintain appropriate hydration levels.

    Sources
    [1] Should You Really Drink 8 Glasses of Water a Day – DripDrop https://www.dripdrop.com/blog/dehydration-science/do-we-really-need-to-drink-8-glasses-of-water-per-day
    [2] Insensible Fluid Loss – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK544219/
    [3] Superhydration: How Much Water Is Too Much? – Cedars-Sinai https://www.cedars-sinai.org/blog/excessive-hydration.html
    [4] The Return of the 8×8 Myth – Mother Jones https://www.motherjones.com/kevin-drum/2011/07/return-8×8-myth/
    [5] Effects of Drugs and Excipients on Hydration Status – PMC https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6470661/
    [6] Can You Drink Too Much Water? | University Hospitals https://www.uhhospitals.org/blog/articles/2024/01/can-you-drink-too-much-water
    [7] “Drink at least eight glasses of water a day.” Really? Is … – PubMed https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12376390/
    [8] What Happens When You Drink Too Much Water? – WebMD https://www.webmd.com/diet/what-is-too-much-water-intake
    [9] “Drink at least eight glasses of water a day.” Really? Is there … https://journals.physiology.org/doi/full/10.1152/ajpregu.00365.2002
    [10] Drink 8 Glasses of Water a Day: Fact or Fiction? – Healthline https://www.healthline.com/nutrition/8-glasses-of-water-per-day
    [11] The Science of Hydration: How Water Impacts the Body https://www.physiology.org/publications/news/the-physiologist-magazine/2021/july/the-science-of-hydration?SSO=Y
    [12] Where did the 8-glasses-of-water-a-day myth come from? | The Week https://theweek.com/articles/460728/where-did-8glassesofwateraday-myth-come-from
    [13] How much water should you drink a day? – Evidation https://evidation.com/blog/how-much-water-should-you-drink-a-day
    [14] Fluid and Electrolyte Therapy https://www.utmb.edu/Pedi_Ed/CoreV2/Fluids/Fluids_print.html
    [15] Levels of Hydration and Cognitive Function – News-Medical https://www.news-medical.net/health/Levels-of-Hydration-and-Cognitive-Function.aspx
    [16] Hydration and health: a review – Benelam – 2010 – Wiley Online Library https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1467-3010.2009.01795.x
    [17] [DOC] Fluid and Electrolyte Therapy in Children – Stanford Medicine https://med.stanford.edu/content/dam/sm/pednephrology/documents/education/red-team-handbook/Appendix_Renal.doc
    [18] Athletes: Drinking Too Much Water Can Be Fatal – Loyola Medicine https://www.loyolamedicine.org/newsroom/blog-articles/athletes-drinking-too-much-water-can-be-fatal
    [19] Water intoxication: What happens when you drink too much water? https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/318619
    [20] Water Intoxication: Toxicity, Symptoms & Treatment – Cleveland Clinic https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/water-intoxication
    [21] Overhydration: Types, Symptoms, and Treatments – Healthline https://www.healthline.com/health/overhydration
    [22] Overhydration – Hormonal and Metabolic Disorders – Merck Manuals https://www.merckmanuals.com/home/hormonal-and-metabolic-disorders/water-balance/overhydration

  • Understanding Estrogen Dominance: A Critical Medical Perspective

    The concept of estrogen dominance has gained significant attention in women’s health discussions, though its status as a legitimate medical condition remains controversial. This analysis examines the scientific evidence surrounding this phenomenon and explores evidence-based approaches to hormonal balance.

    Defining the Concept

    Estrogen dominance is commonly described as a condition of increased estrogen levels relative to progesterone levels in the body[2]. This can manifest in two primary forms:

    • Frank estrogen dominance: excessive estrogen production
    • Relative estrogen dominance: insufficient progesterone production relative to estrogen levels[7]

    Scientific Validity and Medical Recognition

    It’s crucial to note that major medical organizations, including the American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists, the American Academy of Family Physicians, and the Endocrine Society, do not recognize estrogen dominance as an official diagnosis[1]. The term was originally coined by Dr. John R. Lee in his self-published works, but his theory lacks support from clinical data and peer-reviewed research[1].

    Physiological Role of Estrogen

    Estrogen is a pivotal hormone for human health in both genders, though its distribution and receptor affinity varies throughout different life phases. The body produces three main types of estrogen:

    • Estrone (E1): predominant after menopause
    • Estradiol (E2): strongest form, produced by ovaries
    • Estriol (E3): typically measured during pregnancy[2]

    Clinical Implications

    While “estrogen dominance” may not be a recognized medical condition, hormonal imbalances involving estrogen can contribute to various health issues. Research indicates that excess estrogen can lead to:

    • Autoimmune conditions
    • Metabolic disruptions
    • Tissue-specific complications
    • Potential neoplastic developments[5]

    Evidence-Based Interventions

    Dietary Modifications

    Research supports several dietary approaches for maintaining healthy hormone levels:

    Mediterranean Diet Pattern
    Studies demonstrate that following a Mediterranean diet for six months can help decrease estrogen levels[3]. This dietary pattern emphasizes:

    • Plant-based foods
    • High fiber content
    • Reduced animal fats
    • Limited refined carbohydrates

    Specific Dietary Components
    Clinical evidence supports including:

    • Cruciferous vegetables (contain DIM)
    • High-fiber foods
    • Foods rich in vitamin B6 and zinc[3]

    Lifestyle Interventions

    Research-supported lifestyle modifications include:

    Exercise and Physical Activity
    Regular physical activity has shown beneficial effects on hormone regulation, though excessive exercise should be avoided as it may increase cortisol and estrogen levels[3].

    Stress Management
    Chronic stress can affect hormonal balance through cortisol production, which may impact estrogen and progesterone levels[7].

    Clinical Considerations

    Hormone Testing

    Clinicians should consider comprehensive hormone testing, including:

    • Estrone (E1)
    • Estradiol (E2)
    • Estriol (E3)
    • Progesterone levels[2]

    Treatment Approaches

    When addressing hormonal imbalances, consider:

    Conventional Treatment Options

    • Hormone replacement therapy when indicated
    • Management of underlying conditions
    • Regular monitoring of hormone levels[4]

    Complementary Approaches

    • Dietary modifications
    • Lifestyle interventions
    • Stress reduction techniques[3]

    Future Research Directions

    Current research gaps suggest the need for:

    • Long-term clinical trials
    • Standardized measurement protocols
    • Investigation of individual variation in hormone metabolism
    • Studies on environmental influences on hormone balance[9]

    Clinical Recommendations

    Healthcare providers should:

    1. Focus on evidence-based diagnostic criteria
    2. Consider comprehensive hormone testing when indicated
    3. Address underlying health conditions
    4. Implement lifestyle and dietary modifications as first-line interventions
    5. Monitor treatment response with objective measures

    Conclusion

    While “estrogen dominance” as a distinct clinical entity lacks scientific validation, hormonal imbalances involving estrogen are real and clinically significant[1]. A comprehensive approach combining evidence-based interventions with individualized patient care remains the most effective strategy for addressing hormone-related health concerns[3].

    The key to successful management lies in moving beyond the simplified concept of “estrogen dominance” toward a more nuanced understanding of hormonal interactions and their effects on health[5]. This approach allows for more precise, evidence-based interventions while acknowledging the complex nature of hormonal health.

    Sources
    [1] The Myth of Estrogen Dominance – Winona https://bywinona.com/journal/estrogen-dominance
    [2] [PDF] Estrogen Dominance – VA.gov https://www.va.gov/WHOLEHEALTHLIBRARY/docs/Estrogen-Dominance.pdf
    [3] A Functional Medicine Protocol for Estrogen Dominance – Rupa Health https://www.rupahealth.com/post/a-functional-medicine-protocol-for-estrogen-dominance
    [4] Estrogen – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538260/
    [5] Estrogen: The necessary evil for human health, and ways to tame it https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29573619/
    [6] Estrogen Alone and Joint Symptoms in the Women’s Health Initiative … https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3855295/
    [7] Treat High Estrogen Dominance Naturally: Food Diet & Lifestyle https://citynaturopathic.ca/how-to-treat-estrogen-dominance/
    [8] High Estrogen: Causes, Symptoms, Dominance & Treatment https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/22363-high-estrogen
    [9] The Effects of Diet and Exercise on Endogenous Estrogens and … https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8489575/
    [10] Estrogen Regulation of Growth Hormone Action – Oxford Academic https://academic.oup.com/edrv/article-abstract/25/5/693/2355205?redirectedFrom=fulltext&login=false
    [11] Estrogen Dominance – Whole Health Library – VA.gov https://www.va.gov/WHOLEHEALTHLIBRARY/tools/estrogen-dominance.asp
    [12] High vs. Low Estrogen: Symptoms, Effects, and Management https://www.draliabadi.com/womens-health-blog/symptoms-of-high-or-low-estrogen/
    [13] [PDF] ESTROGEN DOMINANCE – VA.gov https://www.va.gov/WHOLEHEALTHLIBRARY/docs/Estrogen-Dominance-508.pdf
    [14] Estrogen in Severe Mental Illness: A Potential New Treatment … https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamapsychiatry/fullarticle/210086
    [15] The Effects of Diet and Exercise on Endogenous Estrogens and … https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8489575/
    [16] Estrogen and homocysteine – Oxford Academic https://academic.oup.com/cardiovascres/article/53/3/577/325910?login=false
    [17] Signs and symptoms of high estrogen – MedicalNewsToday https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/323280
    [18] How Your Diet Can Affect Estrogen Levels – Healthline https://www.healthline.com/nutrition/foods-to-lower-estrogen
    [19] The Myth of Estrogen Dominance – Winona https://bywinona.com/journal/estrogen-dominance

  • The Gut Microbiota-Disease Connection: A Review

    The Gut Microbiota-Disease Connection: A Review

    When we conceive of nutrition, we consider the interaction of the nutrients we ingest and our bodies. What is often not considered in this process is a third party, the organisms that reside in our intestinal tract. The human gut harbors trillions of microorganisms that play crucial roles in health and disease. This complex ecosystem has emerged as a key modulator of metabolism, immunity, and various disease states.

    The TMAO Connection: Eggs, Meat and Cardiovascular Risk

    Trimethylamine N-oxide (TMAO), a metabolite produced by gut bacteria from dietary choline and L-carnitine, has emerged as a significant link between diet and cardiovascular disease. When consuming eggs, red meat, and other choline-rich foods, gut bacteria convert these compounds to trimethylamine (TMA), which is then oxidized in the liver to TMAO[12].

    High TMAO levels correlate with increased cardiovascular risk through several mechanisms:

    – Promotion of atherosclerotic plaque formation

    – Enhanced platelet reactivity and thrombosis risk

    – Increased inflammation in blood vessel walls[18]

    Studies have shown that fish consumption, while high in preformed TMAO, does not carry the same cardiovascular risks as red meat consumption. This is likely because fish-derived TMAO follows a different metabolic pathway compared to TMAO produced from meat and eggs[11].

    Obesity and the Gut Microbiome

    The Firmicutes/Bacteroidetes Ratio

    A key marker of metabolic health is the ratio between two major bacterial phyla: Firmicutes and Bacteroidetes. Research has revealed several important patterns:

    1. Obese individuals typically show higher Firmicutes and lower Bacteroidetes levels[33]

    2. Weight loss tends to normalize this ratio[33]

    3. The F/B ratio correlates with:

       – Body fat percentage

       – Insulin sensitivity

       – Inflammatory markers[36]

    Microbiota Transplant Studies

    Compelling evidence for the causal role of gut microbiota in obesity comes from transplant studies:

    1. Germ-free mice receiving microbiota from obese donors develop obesity despite normal diet[29]

    2. Human studies show that FMT from lean donors can temporarily improve insulin sensitivity in obese recipients[24]

    3. The obesity phenotype can be transmitted through microbiota transfer in both animal and human studies[23]

    Therapeutic Modulation of Gut Flora

    Prebiotics

    Beneficial prebiotic foods include:

    – Garlic, leeks, asparagus

    – Bananas and apples

    – Whole grains

    – Legumes[9]

    Probiotics

    Key probiotic sources include:

    – Yogurt with live cultures

    – Kimchi

    – Sauerkraut

    – Kombucha

    – Kefir[7]

    Disease States Improved by Gut Flora Modulation

    1. Inflammatory Bowel Disease Restoration of microbial diversity reduces inflammation[3]

    2. Type 2 Diabetes:Improved glucose metabolism through enhanced gut barrier function[2]

    3. Cardiovascular Disease:Reduced TMAO production and inflammation[18]

    4. Obesity:Enhanced metabolic function and reduced inflammation[33]

    5. Depression and Anxiety:Improved mood through gut-brain axis modulation[7]

    6. Colorectal Cancer:Reduced risk through improved barrier function[6]

    7. Allergies:Enhanced immune system regulation[1]

    8. Liver Disease:Reduced inflammation and improved metabolism[2]

    9. Alzheimer’s Disease: Reduced neuroinflammation[10]

    10. Metabolic Syndrome:Improved insulin sensitivity and reduced inflammation[2]

    Healthy Eating and TMAO Mitigation

    Recent research suggests that a healthy gut microbiome can help mitigate the negative effects of occasional egg or meat consumption through several mechanisms:

    1. Enhanced intestinal barrier function

    2. Improved metabolic processing of dietary compounds

    3. Reduced inflammatory response[3]

    Key dietary strategies include:

    – High fiber intake

    – Regular consumption of fermented foods

    – Limited processed food intake

    – Mediterranean diet pattern[5]

    Practical Recommendations

    To optimize gut health and reduce disease risk:

    1. Consume diverse plant-based foods rich in fiber

    2. Include fermented foods regularly

    3. Limit processed foods and excess red meat

    4. Exercise regularly to promote beneficial gut bacteria

    5. Consider prebiotic foods as part of daily diet[41]

    The relationship between gut microbiota and disease is complex but increasingly well understood. While complete avoidance of certain foods may not be necessary, focusing on overall dietary pattern and gut health appears to be key for optimal health outcomes. Continued research in this field promises to yield more targeted therapeutic approaches for various diseases through microbiome modulation.

    Sources

    [1] The Importance of Prebiotics – Brown University Health https://www.brownhealth.org/be-well/importance-prebiotics

    [2] Role of the gut microbiome in chronic diseases: a narrative review https://www.nature.com/articles/s41430-021-00991-6

    [3] Unveiling the therapeutic symphony of probiotics, prebiotics, and … https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10881654/

    [4] How probiotics and prebiotics affect gut health | HealthPartners Blog https://www.healthpartners.com/blog/prebiotic-and-probiotic/

    [5] Gut Microbiota Dysbiosis, Oxidative Stress, Inflammation, and … https://www.mdpi.com/2076-3921/13/8/985

    [6] Prebiotics: Understanding their role in gut health – Harvard Health https://www.health.harvard.edu/nutrition/prebiotics-understanding-their-role-in-gut-health

    [7] Probiotics and Prebiotics: What’s the Difference? – Healthline https://www.healthline.com/nutrition/probiotics-and-prebiotics

    [8] Gut microbiome and health: mechanistic insights https://gut.bmj.com/content/71/5/1020

    [9] Prebiotics, probiotics and the microbes in your gut – Mayo Clinic Press https://mcpress.mayoclinic.org/dairy-health/prebiotics-probiotics-and-the-microbes-in-your-gut-key-to-your-digestive-health/

    [10] The Gut Microbiome Alterations and Inflammation-Driven … https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6394610/

    [11] Dietary factors, gut microbiota, and serum trimethylamine-N-oxide … https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33709132/

    [12] Gut Microbiota-Dependent Marker TMAO in Promoting … – Frontiers https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/pharmacology/articles/10.3389/fphar.2019.01360/full

    [13] Associations of red meat, poultry, fish and egg intake with risk of … https://academic.oup.com/eurheartj/article/42/Supplement_1/ehab724.2438/6393865

    [14] How Our Gut Bacteria Can Use Eggs to Accelerate Cancer https://nutritionfacts.org/video/how-our-gut-bacteria-can-use-eggs-to-accelerate-cancer/

    [15] Berberine treats atherosclerosis via a vitamine-like effect … – Nature https://www.nature.com/articles/s41392-022-01027-6

    [16] Egg Consumption and Carotid Atherosclerosis in the Northern … https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4136506/

    [17] [PDF] Its Association with Dietary Sources of Trimethylamine N https://www.eajm.org/Content/files/sayilar/228/21-26.pdf

    [18] Gut microbiota in atherosclerosis: focus on trimethylamine N‐oxide https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7318354/

    [19] Red Meat and Egg Yolk Consumption Increases Risk for … https://www.pcrm.org/news/health-nutrition/red-meat-and-egg-yolk-consumption-increases-risk-cardiovascular-disease

    [20] Dietary Meat, Trimethylamine N-Oxide-Related Metabolites, and … https://www.ahajournals.org/doi/10.1161/ATVBAHA.121.316533

    [21] Does eating eggs increase my risk of heart disease? – BHF https://www.bhf.org.uk/informationsupport/heart-matters-magazine/news/behind-the-headlines/eggs-and-heart-disease

    [22] Impact of Fecal Microbiota Transplantation on Obesity and Metabolic … https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6835402/

    [23] Research progress of gut microbiota and obesity caused by high-fat … https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10040832/

    [24] The FMT-TRIM double-blind placebo-controlled pilot trial – PLOS https://journals.plos.org/plosmedicine/article?id=10.1371%2Fjournal.pmed.1003051

    [25] Effectiveness of Fecal Microbiota Transplantation for Weight Loss in … https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9856235/

    [26] Gut microbiota affects obesity susceptibility in mice through gut … https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10916699/

    [27] Treating Obesity and Metabolic Syndrome with Fecal Microbiota … https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5045147/

    [28] Effectiveness of Fecal Microbiota Transplantation for Weight Loss in … https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamanetworkopen/fullarticle/2799634

    [29] The critical role of gut microbiota in obesity – Frontiers https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/endocrinology/articles/10.3389/fendo.2022.1025706/full

    [30] Fecal microbiota transplantation confers beneficial metabolic effects … https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-018-33893-y

    [31] Gut microbiota mediates the anti-obesity effect of calorie restriction … https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-018-31353-1

    [32] Mouse Study Adds to Evidence Linking Gut Bacteria and Obesity https://www.hopkinsmedicine.org/news/newsroom/news-releases/2018/02/mouse-study-adds-to-evidence-linking-gut-bacteria-and-obesity

    [33] The Firmicutes/Bacteroidetes Ratio: A Relevant Marker of Gut … https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7285218/

    [34] The Association between the Firmicutes/Bacteroidetes Ratio … – MDPI https://www.mdpi.com/2227-9059/12/10/2263

    [35] Gut Microbiota Profiles of Treated Metabolic Syndrome Patients and … https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-020-67078-3

    [36] Gut microbiota markers associated with obesity and overweight in … https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-021-84928-w

    [37] The gut microbiota and its relationship to diet and obesity https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3427212/

    [38] Gut microbiota and BMI throughout childhood: the role of firmicutes … https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-022-07176-6

    [39] Childhood Obesity and Firmicutes/Bacteroidetes Ratio in the Gut … https://www.liebertpub.com/doi/10.1089/chi.2018.0040

    [40] Association of Firmicutes/Bacteroidetes Ratio with Body Mass Index … https://www.mdpi.com/2218-1989/14/10/518

    [41] Probiotics and prebiotics: what’s really important – Harvard Health https://www.health.harvard.edu/nutrition/are-you-getting-essential-nutrients-from-your-diet

    [42] Adjusting for age improves identification of gut microbiome … – eLife https://elifesciences.org/articles/50240

  • Understanding Subclinical Hypothyroidism: A Guide for Patients

    Subclinical hypothyroidism is a common thyroid disorder that often goes unnoticed but can have significant impacts on health. This blog post aims to demystify this condition.

    What is Subclinical Hypothyroidism?

    Subclinical hypothyroidism is a mild form of thyroid dysfunction characterized by:

    • Elevated thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) levels
    • Normal free thyroxine (T4) levels

    It affects up to 10% of the adult population, with higher prevalence in women and older individuals[1][2].

    Causes

    The most common cause of subclinical hypothyroidism is Hashimoto’s thyroiditis, an autoimmune condition. Other causes include:

    • Iodine deficiency
    • Previous thyroid surgery or radiation
    • Certain medications (e.g., lithium, amiodarone)
    • Pituitary dysfunction (rarely)[1][3]

    Diagnosis

    Diagnosis is based on thyroid function tests (TFTs):

    • TSH: Elevated (typically 4.5-10 mIU/L)
    • Free T4: Within normal range

    It’s important to note that TSH levels can fluctuate, so repeated testing is often necessary for accurate diagnosis[4].

    Symptoms

    Many patients with subclinical hypothyroidism are asymptomatic. However, some may experience mild symptoms such as:

    • Fatigue
    • Weight gain
    • Dry skin
    • Cold intolerance
    • Mild cognitive impairment[2][5]

    Treatment

    The decision to treat subclinical hypothyroidism is often individualized. The American Association of Clinical Endocrinologists (AACE) recommends considering treatment for:

    • TSH levels >10 mIU/L
    • TSH levels between 4.5-10 mIU/L with symptoms or risk factors (e.g., positive thyroid antibodies, cardiovascular risk factors)[6]

    Thyroid Function Tests Explained

    1. TSH: Produced by the pituitary gland, it stimulates thyroid hormone production. Elevated levels indicate potential thyroid underactivity.
    2. Free T4: The main hormone produced by the thyroid gland. Normal levels with high TSH characterize subclinical hypothyroidism.
    3. Free T3: The active form of thyroid hormone. It’s not typically used for diagnosing subclinical hypothyroidism but may be considered in some cases.

    Treating Within the Normal Range

    The concept of treating within the traditional normal range is based on the understanding that individuals have unique “set points” for optimal thyroid function. The AACE suggests a narrower TSH range of 0.5-2.5 mIU/L as potentially more appropriate for many individuals[6].

    Thyroid Replacement Options

    1. Levothyroxine (T4): The most commonly prescribed option.
    2. Liothyronine (T3): Sometimes used in combination with T4.
    3. Natural desiccated thyroid (e.g., Armour Thyroid, Nature-Throid): Contains both T4 and T3.

    The choice depends on individual patient factors and response to treatment[7].

    Health Benefits of Treatment

    Treating subclinical hypothyroidism may lead to improvements in:

    1. Basal Metabolic Rate: Thyroid hormones regulate metabolism, potentially aiding weight management[8].
    2. Lean Body Mass: Proper thyroid function supports muscle health[9].
    3. Mentation: Some studies suggest improvements in cognitive function[10].
    4. Lipid Profile: Treatment may lead to reduced LDL cholesterol levels[11].
    5. Energy Levels: Many patients report increased energy and reduced fatigue[5].
    6. Liver Fat: Thyroid hormones play a role in hepatic lipid metabolism[12].
    7. Cardiovascular Health: Treatment may reduce the risk of heart disease in some patients[13].

    Conclusion

    Subclinical hypothyroidism is a complex condition that requires careful consideration of individual patient factors. While not all patients require treatment, addressing this condition can lead to significant health benefits for many. As always, decisions about diagnosis and treatment should be made in consultation with a healthcare provider.

    Remember, thyroid health is crucial for overall well-being. If you suspect thyroid issues, don’t hesitate to discuss your concerns with your doctor.

    Sources
    [1] Subclinical Hypothyroidism | Endocrinology – JAMA Network https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jama/fullarticle/2737684
    [2] Subclinical Hypothyroidism: A Review – PubMed https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31287527/
    [3] Clinical practice guidelines for hypothyroidism in adults – PubMed https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23246686/
    [4] [PDF] Interpreting Thyroid Function Tests https://pro.aace.com/sites/default/files/2020-12/AACE%20TRC%20Interpretation%20of%20TFTs%20Part%203-FINAL.pdf
    [5] Direct effects of thyroid hormones on hepatic lipid metabolism – PMC https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6013028/
    [6] Thyroid Hormone Therapy – American Cancer Society https://www.cancer.org/cancer/types/thyroid-cancer/treating/thyroid-hormone-therapy.html
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